Especially influential was Mowrer (1939) who hypothesized that fears are acquired through repeated presentations of a neutral stimulus (conditioned stimulus; CS) and a pain-producing or fear-eliciting stimulus (unconditioned stimulus; US). He observed that the strength of the fear response in rats is determined by the number of repetitions of ...Basic Principles of Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning is a form of learning whereby a conditioned stimulus (CS) becomes associated with an unrelated unconditioned stimulus (US) in order to produce a behavioral response known as a conditioned response (CR).The conditioned response is the learned response to the previously neutral stimulus.How is the neutral stimulus related to the CS? The neutral stimulus becomes the CS once conditioning has occurred. Alika is allergic to grass. Whenever he would sit on the …In this form of learning an association is formed between two events — the presentation of a neutral stimulus (NS) and the presentation of an unconditioned stimulus (US). As you will see, though the response to the US appears similar to the response to the NS, they are not identical and in some cases the response is much different or even opposite.When Pavlov paired the tone with the meat powder over and over again, the previously neutral stimulus (the tone) also began to elicit salivation from the dogs. Thus, the neutral stimulus became the conditioned stimulus (CS), which is a stimulus that elicits a response after repeatedly being paired with an unconditioned stimulus.Pavlovian fear conditioning is a form of learning in which animals associate an unavoidable aversive outcome (i.e., the unconditioned stimulus or US) with a salient and predictive cue (i.e., the conditioned stimulus, or CS) (Izquierdo, Furini, & Myskiw, 2016; From: Neurobiology of Abnormal Emotion and Motivated Behaviors, 2018. Related terms:Let's take a look at some of the most basic differences. Classical Conditioning. First described by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist. Focuses on involuntary, automatic behaviors. Involves placing a neutral signal before a reflex. Operant Conditioning. First described by B. F. Skinner, an American psychologist.In second-order conditioning, a neutral stimulus becomes a CS after being paired with a previously established CS. Some stimuli—response pairs, such as those between smell and food—are more easily conditioned than others because they have been particularly important in our evolutionary past.Created by maddiee1122 Terms in this set (5) Neutral Stimuli (NS) In classical conditioning, a stimulus that evokes no response before conditioning. Unconditioned Response (UCR) in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth).When a neutral stimulus is paired with a CS, the neutral stimulus will become a CS and elicit a CR. This process is called. A higher-order conditioning. 11 Q The behavior that is elicited by the presence of an unconditioned or conditioned stimulus is referred to …Animal learning - Sensitization, Conditioning, Stimulus: The effect of habituation is to eliminate unnecessary responses, but the main function of learning has usually been thought to be the production of new responses. Traditional psychological theories of learning have assumed that the learning of new patterns of behaviour comes about through the …The Neutral/Orientiing Stimulus (NS) is repeatedly paired with the Unconditioned/Natural Stimulus (US). The NS is transformed into a Conditioned Stimulus (CS); that is, when the CS is presented by itself, it elicits or causes the CR (which is the same involuntary response as the UR; the name changes because it is elicited by a different stimulus.classical conditioning. the process by which a previously neutral stimulus acquires the capacity to elicit a response through association with a stimulus that already elicits a similar or related response. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like learning, behaviorism, unconditioned stimulus and more.3: How does a neutral stimulus become a conditioned stimulus? Pavlov's Experiments ... Tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the CS is called generalization.If you pair a neutral stimulus (NS) with an unconditioned stimulus (US) that already triggers an unconditioned response (UR) that neutral stimulus will become a conditioned stimulus (CS), triggering a conditioned response (CR) similar to the original unconditioned response.The unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is a term described in the learning literature to describe a stimulus that automatically elicits a response (Chance 2009 ). The UCS is innate; no prior learning has to occur in order for the UCS to elicit a response. Unconditioned stimuli have “survival value” or are pertinent for survival (Domjan 2015) and ...In classical conditioning when a strong CS is paired with a neutral stimulus causing the neutral stimulus to become a second CS is called. A Higher Order Conditioning. B …17 มิ.ย. 2566 ... However, because the CS has been associated repeatedly with the UCS, it too will trigger a response similar to the UCR. Conditioned Response (CR): ...How is the neutral stimulus related to the CS? The neutral stimulus becomes the CS once conditioning has occurred. Alika is allergic to grass. Whenever he would sit on the grass, his skin would break out in hives that made him feel very itchy. Now, if you just say the word "grass" to him, he starts to feel itchy.University of Missouri–St. Louis. For most of the twentieth century, Pavlov’s originally pro- posed stimulus substitution model of classical conditioning was widely accepted. Pavlov viewed conditioning as a mechanistic (automatic) result of pairing neutral and biologically significant events in time. He believed that the established ...When Pavlov paired the tone with the meat powder over and over again, the previously neutral stimulus (the tone) also began to elicit salivation from the dogs. Thus, the neutral stimulus became the conditioned stimulus (CS), which is a stimulus that elicits a response after repeatedly being paired with an unconditioned stimulus. Eventually, the ... Associative learning is the ability of living organisms to perceive contingency relations between events in their environment. It is a fundamental component of adaptive behavior as it allows anticipation of an event on the basis of another. Despite its name, it is theoretically neutral: While many theories of associative learning are indeed ...Fear Conditioning. H. Flor, N. Birbaumer, in International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 2001 1 Basic Terms. The pairing of an initially neutral stimulus (the conditioned stimulus—CS) with a biologically relevant stimulus (the unconditioned stimulus—US) comes to elicit a response (conditioned response—CR) that is usually but not always similar to the response ... Sep 28, 2023 · The neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS). The conditioned stimulus can trigger the same response as the unconditioned stimulus can, even when it is not present. When the involuntary response is triggered by a conditioned stimulus, it is called the conditioned response (CR). The conditioned response is a learned response. A type of associative learning between the successively applied two stimuli resulting in prediction of the second stimulus by the first stimulus. Classical conditioning, which was formalized by Pavlov in 1906, is a type of associative learning in which the neutral conditioned stimulus (CS) comes to evoke a conditioned response (CR) that is ...Feb 19, 2022 · A neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus, something which reliably produces a particular intended behavior referred to as the conditioned response, through a process called classical ... Generalization of fear is the transfer of a conditioned response (CR) to other similar but safe stimuli that resemble the original conditioned stimulus (CS) 1,2,3.Overgeneralization of fear can be ...17 ต.ค. 2565 ... ... conditioned stimulus (CS) is a substitute stimulus that triggers the same response in an organism as an unconditioned stimulus. For example ...Taste aversion falls into a category in psychology called classical conditioning wherein a subject learns to connect one previously unrelated stimulus, or neutral stimulus, to another. A Russian ...31 ก.ค. 2566 ... The dish (CS) is associated with the illness (US), leading to a feeling of disgust or nausea (CR) when thinking about or encountering the dish ...Nov 20, 2022 · UCR: A cynophobic person gets scared of dogs. CS: Therapist performing relaxation technique. CR: Person feels comfortable being around dogs. Classical conditioning is also used in therapy to combat different types of phobias and anxieties, such as the fear of dogs. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like _____ is credited with laying the foundation for the study of classical conditioning in psychology., In Pavlov's study, the UCS was _____; the neutral stimulus was _____; and, finally, the CS was _____., Which pair below CORRECTLY identifies a stimulus or response in Watson and Rayner's "Little Albert" study? and more. The conditioned stimulus (CS) is a neutral stimulus that, after being repeatedly presented prior to the unconditioned stimulus, evokes a similar response as the unconditioned stimulus. In Pavlov’s experiment, the sound of the tone served as the conditioned stimulus that, after learning, produced the conditioned response (CR), which is the ...A neutral stimulus is a stimulus that does not produce an automatic response. In classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus turns into a conditioned stimulus. To understand this better,...Basic principles of learning are always operating and always influencing human behavior. This module discusses the two most fundamental forms of learning -- classical (Pavlovian) and instrumental (operant) conditioning. Through them, we respectively learn to associate 1) stimuli in the environment, or 2) our own behaviors, with significant …Jul 9, 2021 · Generalization of fear is the transfer of a conditioned response (CR) to other similar but safe stimuli that resemble the original conditioned stimulus (CS) 1,2,3.Overgeneralization of fear can be ... When Pavlov paired the tone with the meat powder over and over again, the previously neutral stimulus (the tone) also began to elicit salivation from the dogs. Thus, the neutral stimulus became the conditioned stimulus (CS), which is a stimulus that elicits a response after repeatedly being paired with an unconditioned stimulus. Eventually, the ... 3. Neutral stimulus (EN) A neutral stimulus would be that stimulus that does not cause any effect on the organism and its behavior, so it does not produce any response to the appearance of a stimulus of this type. You may be interested: "Neutral stimulus: what it is, how it works, and examples" 4. Conditioned stimulus (CS)Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like _____ is credited with laying the foundation for the study of classical conditioning in psychology., In Pavlov's study, the UCS was _____; the neutral stimulus was _____; and, finally, the CS was _____., Which pair below CORRECTLY identifies a stimulus or response in Watson and Rayner's "Little Albert" study? and more. The process of learning by which a previously neutral stimulus come to elicit a response identical or similar to one that was originally elicited by another stimulus as the result of the pairing or association of the two stimuli. Neutral Stimulus (NS) A stimulus that before conditioning does not produce a particular response. ... stimulus. The Conditioned Stimulus (CS) is a neutral stimulus that, after being repeatedly presented prior to the unconditioned stimulus, evokes a similar ...Jun 14, 2023 · During this stage, a stimulus which produces no response (i.e., neutral) is associated with the unconditioned stimulus, at which point it now becomes known as the conditioned stimulus (CS). For example, a stomach virus (UCS) might be associated with eating a certain food such as chocolate (CS). Classical conditioning is a form of learning whereby a conditioned stimulus (CS) becomes associated with an unrelated unconditioned stimulus (US) to produce a behavioral response known as a conditioned response (CR). The conditioned response is the learned response to the previously neutral stimulus.The unconditioned stimulus is usually a …classical conditioning. the process by which a previously neutral stimulus acquires the capacity to elicit a response through association with a stimulus that already elicits a similar or related response. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like learning, behaviorism, unconditioned stimulus and more.Likewise, in a study from our lab (Krypotos et al., 2019; Experiment 1), participants were asked to imagine that a previously shown neutral CS (i.e., a blue square) was followed by a shock. Compared to a control condition (between-subjects) in which participants were asked to imagine the CS and a neutral tone, the experimental condition ...a neutral stimulus (CS) is paired with a stimulus that naturally elicits the behavior (UCS). This pairing is repeated until a learned response (CR) occurs to the neutral stimulus. The conditioning occurs because the conditioned stimulus (CS) conveys biologically important information (that the UCS is coming). One pairing between a neutral stimulus and a US is often suffi a. True cient to establish the neutral stimulus as a CS. b. False ANSWER: True; CERs are always negative. a. True b. False ANSWER: False; A neutral stimulus becomes a CS by being paired with a US. a. True b. False ANSWER: True; In respondent extinction, the target behavior is no ...How is the neutral stimulus related to the CS? The neutral stimulus becomes the CS once conditioning has occurred. Alika is allergic to grass. Whenever he would sit on the …classical conditioning. the process by which a previously neutral stimulus acquires the capacity to elicit a response through association with a stimulus that already elicits a similar or related response. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like learning, behaviorism, unconditioned stimulus and more.One pairing between a neutral stimulus and a US is often suffi a. True cient to establish the neutral stimulus as a CS. b. False ANSWER: True; CERs are always negative. a. True b. False ANSWER: False; A neutral stimulus becomes a CS by being paired with a US. a. True b. False ANSWER: True; In respondent extinction, the target behavior is no ...a learned response to a previously neutral stimulus. Acquisition. Early learning process when interacting with something for the first time. It is the original response to the stimulus. Generalization. A conclusion drawn from specific information that is used to make a broad statement about a topic or person.The process by which a stimulus event weakens or reduces the probability of the response that it follows. punishment. A stimulus that is inherently reinforcing, typically satisfying a physiological need; an example is food. Primary reinforcer. A stimulus that is inherently punishing; an example is electric shock.The conditioned stimulus should occur before or during the same time as an unconditioned stimulus to get the desired conditioning. For example, a perfume might be associated with a specific person. Stage 3: After conditioning: The conditioned stimulus in association with unconditioned stimulus creates a new conditioned response.During this stage, a stimulus which produces no response (i.e., neutral) is associated with the unconditioned stimulus, at which point it now becomes known as the conditioned stimulus (CS). For example, a stomach virus (UCS) might be associated with eating a certain food such as chocolate (CS).Blanchard, 1972). Eventually, the CS alone, without the US will prompt a fear CR in the rats. The CS and the resulting CR can subsequently be unpaired by presenting the CS alone many times, without the US. The neutral stimulus will then stop being associated with the aversive stimulus and just be a neutral stimulus again.Jun 22, 2023 · Using the terminology of the classical conditioning paradigm, the conditioned stimulus (CS) is a learned stimulus that can eventually trigger a conditioned response. For example, the sound of a bell is the conditioned stimulus in Pavlov’s experiment, and the dogs salivating would be the conditioned response. In classical conditioning, a ... ... neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS). unconditioned stimulus (US), in ... the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the ...what is a neutral stimulus a. a stimulus that doesn't cause a response unless it is associated with a UCS b. a stimulus that become the UCR over a period of conditioning c. a stimulus that causes the UCS if there have been enough trials for them to become associated d. anything that causes a reflexive responseStudy with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like 1. Psychologists use the term _________ to refer to a relatively permanent change in knowledge or behavior resulting from experience. a. maturation b. development c. learning d. perception, 2. The study of learning is closely associated with the __________ approach in psychology. a. psychodynamic b. Gestalt c. cognitive d ... a classical conditioning procedure in which a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus after being paired with an existing conditioned stimulus. operant conditioning. a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement and weakened if followed by punishment. law of effect. a basic principle of learning that ...Conditioned response (CR): The target response similar to the UCR that originally occurred to the UCS only, but after conditioning occurred to CS, even in ...Jun 14, 2023 · During this stage, a stimulus which produces no response (i.e., neutral) is associated with the unconditioned stimulus, at which point it now becomes known as the conditioned stimulus (CS). For example, a stomach virus (UCS) might be associated with eating a certain food such as chocolate (CS). Jun 14, 2023 · During this stage, a stimulus which produces no response (i.e., neutral) is associated with the unconditioned stimulus, at which point it now becomes known as the conditioned stimulus (CS). For example, a stomach virus (UCS) might be associated with eating a certain food such as chocolate (CS). How is the neutral stimulus related to the CS? The neutral stimulus causes the CS to change after conditioning has occurred. The neutral stimulus becomes the CS once …Generalization of conditioned fear and obsessive-compulsive traits. Fear-conditioning refers to emotional learning to a neutral stimulus (conditioned stimulus or CS) after it is paired with an unconditioned aversive stimulus (US), leading the neutral stimulus to elicit anxiety associated with the anticipation of the aversive event (conditioned response or CR).When Pavlov paired the tone with the meat powder over and over again, the previously neutral stimulus (the tone) also began to elicit salivation from the dogs. Thus, the neutral stimulus became the conditioned stimulus (CS), which is a stimulus that elicits a response after repeatedly being paired with an unconditioned stimulus. Eventually, the ... The neutral metronome sound to which conditioning was acquired is the CS, and the salivation induced by the CS is referred to as the conditioned response (CR). The meat powder is the US and the innate reflex salivary secretion to the US is the unconditioned response (UR).Created by. saraguidi8. Terms in this set (41) _____ stimulus is a stimulus that does not naturally bring about the response of interest. Neutral. In Pavlov's study, …A neutral stimulus is a stimulus which initially produces no specific response other than focusing attention. In classical conditioning, when used together with an unconditioned stimulus, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus. With repeated presentations of both the neutral stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus, the neutral ...When a neutral stimulus is paired with a CS, the neutral stimulus will become a CS and elicit a CR. This process is called. A higher-order conditioning. 11 Q The behavior that is elicited by the presence of an unconditioned or conditioned stimulus is referred to …In a typical Pavlovian counterconditioning design, a neutral conditioned stimulus (CS, e.g., a tone) is first paired with a biologically salient US of a particular valence (e.g., shock or food) and then paired with a US of the opposite valence (e.g., food or shock, respectively). ... during exposure to fearful stimuli reduced fear-related ...Conditioning (psychology), The process of closely associating a neutral stimulus with one that evokes a reflexive response so that eventually the neutral stimulus alone will ev… CONDITION, con·di·tion / kənˈdishən/ • n. 1. the state of something, esp. with regard to its appearance, quality, or working order: the wiring is in good condit…Fear conditioning. Pavlovian fear conditioning is a behavioral paradigm in which organisms learn to predict aversive events. [1] It is a form of learning in which an aversive stimulus (e.g. an electrical shock) is associated with a particular neutral context (e.g., a room) or neutral stimulus (e.g., a tone), resulting in the expression of fear ...Jan 16, 2017 · The unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is a term described in the learning literature to describe a stimulus that automatically elicits a response (Chance 2009 ). The UCS is innate; no prior learning has to occur in order for the UCS to elicit a response. Unconditioned stimuli have “survival value” or are pertinent for survival (Domjan 2015) and ... Look around you. There are many classical conditioning examples in everyday life, from the classroom to mainstream media. Let's explore 10 of them and see what we can learn from them.That neutral stimulus will become a conditioned stimulus (CS), triggering a conditioned response (CR) similar to the original unconditioned response. i.Most ...a neutral stimulus (CS) is paired with a stimulus that naturally elicits the behavior (UCS). This pairing is repeated until a learned response (CR) occurs to the neutral stimulus. The conditioning occurs because the conditioned stimulus (CS) conveys biologically important information (that the UCS is coming). The unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is a term described in the learning literature to describe a stimulus that automatically elicits a response (Chance 2009 ). The UCS is innate; no prior learning has to occur in order for the UCS to elicit a response. Unconditioned stimuli have “survival value” or are pertinent for survival (Domjan 2015) and ...Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like In Pavlov's study, the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) was _____; the neutral stimulus was _____; and, finally, the conditioned stimulus (CS) was _____., Which of the following is TRUE about stimulus control training?, Which of the following sequences CORRECTLY arranges the …Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): This is the stimulus that automatically and naturally triggers a response or behavior. In Pavlov’s experiments, food was the unconditioned stimulus. Conditioned stimulus (CS): This is the previously neutral stimulus that evokes a response after being paired with the unconditioned stimulus. In …In classical conditioning when a strong CS is paired with a neutral stimulus causing the neutral stimulus to become a second CS is called. A Higher Order Conditioning. B Vicarious Conditioning. C Stimulus Substitution. D Discrimination Learning. View Answer . Answer & Explanation.A neutral stimulus is a stimulus that does not produce an automatic response. In classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus turns into a conditioned stimulus. To understand this better,...
Thus, the neutral stimulus became the conditioned stimulus (CS), which is a stimulus that elicits a response after repeatedly being paired with an unconditioned stimulus. Eventually, the dogs began to salivate to the tone alone, just as they previously had salivated at the sound of the assistants’ footsteps.. Evaluating the plan
Definition. Classical conditioning occurs when a conditioned stimulus (CS) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (US). Usually, the conditioned stimulus is a neutral stimulus (e.g., the sound of a tuning fork), the unconditioned stimulus is biologically potent (e.g., the taste of food) and the unconditioned response (UR) to the unconditioned stimulus is an unlearned reflex response (e.g ...When Pavlov paired the tone with the meat powder over and over again, the previously neutral stimulus (the tone) also began to elicit salivation from the dogs. Thus, the neutral stimulus became the conditioned stimulus (CS), which is a stimulus that elicits a response after repeatedly being paired with an unconditioned stimulus. Eventually, the ...a neutral stimulus (CS) is paired with a stimulus that naturally elicits the behavior (UCS). This pairing is repeated until a learned response (CR) occurs to the neutral stimulus. The conditioning occurs because the conditioned stimulus (CS) conveys biologically important information (that the UCS is coming).It doesn't cause the dog to salivate. ... How is the neutral stimulus related to the CS? The neutral stimulus causes the CS to change after conditioning has ...Graphic Courtesy of Kyle Rolofson Images Courtesy of commons.wikimedia.org. Conditioning Processes. During the acquisition stage, a neutral stimulus (NS), which does not produce a noticeable response, acquires the ability to affect the same response as the unconditioned response.In AP Psychology, the neutral stimulus is usually presented before …Ask: does a conditioned response occur? Conditioned response (CR): learned response to a neutral stimulus; For Carla, aftershave smell (CS) elicited anxiety (CR).conditioned stimulus (CS): stimulus that elicits a response due to its being paired with an unconditioned stimulus. higher-order conditioning: (also, second-order conditioning) using a conditioned stimulus to condition a neutral stimulus. neutral stimulus (NS:) stimulus that does not initially elicit a responseA feather tickling your nose, which causes you to sneeze. An onion's smell as you cut it, which makes your eyes water. Pollen from grass and flowers, which causes …Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like 1. Psychologists use the term _________ to refer to a relatively permanent change in knowledge or behavior resulting from experience. a. maturation b. development c. learning d. perception, 2. The study of learning is closely associated with the __________ approach in psychology. a. psychodynamic b. Gestalt c. cognitive d ...A neutral stimulus is a stimulus that at first elicits no response. Pavlov introduced the ringing of the bell as a neutral stimulus. An unconditioned stimulus is a stimulus that leads to an automatic response. In Pavlov’s experiment, the food was the unconditioned stimulus. An unconditioned response is an automatic response to a stimulus.A conditioned stimulus is a substitute stimulus that triggers the same response in an organism as an unconditioned stimulus. Simply put, a conditioned stimulus makes an organism react to something because it is associated with something else. Conditioned stimuli begin as neutral stimuli that do not illicit a response until …A neutral stimulus is something that you can sense by either seeing it, tasting it, or in our case hearing it. But it doesn't produce the reflex being tested. So in our case, the refrigerator door can be heard.a classical conditioning procedure in which a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus after being paired with an existing conditioned stimulus. operant conditioning. a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement and weakened if followed by punishment. law of effect. a basic principle of learning that ...a classical conditioning procedure in which a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus after being paired with an existing conditioned stimulus. operant conditioning. a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement and weakened if followed by punishment. law of effect. a basic principle of learning that ... Pavlovian fear conditioning is a form of learning in which animals associate an unavoidable aversive outcome (i.e., the unconditioned stimulus or US) with a salient and predictive cue (i.e., the conditioned stimulus, or CS) (Izquierdo, Furini, & Myskiw, 2016; From: Neurobiology of Abnormal Emotion and Motivated Behaviors, 2018. Related terms:Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders: A Special Case. 81. Evaluating Treatment and Prevention: What Works? ... Thus, the neutral stimulus became the conditioned stimulus (CS), which is a stimulus that elicits a response after repeatedly being paired with an unconditioned stimulus. Eventually, the dogs began to salivate to the tone alone ...... neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS). unconditioned stimulus (US), in ... the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the ...A neutral stimulus is a stimulus which initially produces no specific response other than focusing attention. In classical conditioning, when used together with an unconditioned stimulus, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus. With repeated presentations of both the neutral stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus, the neutral ...A conditioned stimulus (CS) is any stimulus that elicits a response after repeated pairings with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS). The salivation becomes the conditioned response (CR) — a response to a previously neutral stimulus. Review. To recap, classical conditioning begins with an unconditioned stimulus and an ….
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